Eukaryot. (2010). doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.03.004, Skov, J., Kania, P.W., Holten-Andersen, L., Fouz, B., and Buchmann, K. (2012). Technological trends, global market, and challenges of bio-ethanol production. Phycologia 50, 156169. Quantitative study on lipid productivity of Euglena gracilis and its biodiesel production according to the cultivation conditions . Unlocking the biological potential of Euglena gracilis: evolution, cell biology and significance to parasitism. Zn-bis-glutathionate is the best co-substrate of the monomeric phytochelatin synthase from the photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.1023/A:1009233230706, Deckelbaum, R.J., and Torrejon, C. (2012). 5, 503514. The nanofibres can be surface-modified with functional groups (e.g., carboxylic acid) and could serve as stimuli-responsive polymers or drug delivery systems (Shibakami et al., 2013b). (2009). 93, 5571. doi: 10.1128/ec.00097-06. Effects of vitamin C on health: a review of evidence. Algal Res. By definition, paramylon and its related compounds can only be considered 'nutraceuticals' and not 'pharmaceuticals', which has restricted them to be used only as food supplements (Santini et al., 2018). Eng. 35, 5868. Omega-3 fatty acid biochemistry: perspectives from human nutrition. Molecular structure of paramylon (A). 61, 207212. Towards this end, an E. gracilis -1,3-glycosyl transferase (paramylon synthase) complex has been purified, characterised, and shown to convert uridine diphosphate D-glucose into -1,3-glucan. Biosci. Functional characterization of D-galacturonic acid reductase, a key enzyme of the ascorbate biosynthesis pathway, from Euglena gracilis. 8, 118. J. Appl. Paramylon and other -1,3-glucans are of special interest because of their reported immunostimulatory and antimicrobial bioactivities (Kiss et al., 1986; Barsanti et al., 2001; Russo et al., 2017; Gissibl et al., 2018). Braz. Characterization of -tocopherol methyltransferases from Capsicum annuum L and Arabidopsis thaliana. Is exploitation of microalgae economically and energetically sustainable? Heterologous expression of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) genes from the flagellate Euglena gracilis in insect cells. 36, 111. Biochem. There is a growing global demand for dietary protein with a high nutritional value due to the increasing human population in concurrence with socio-economic changes (Henchion et al., 2017). In principle, enzymatic hydrolysis and conversion processes could be applied to paramylon. Euglena gracilis as source of the antioxidant vitamin E. Effects of culture conditions in the wild strain and in the natural mutant WZSL. Biotechnol. Euglena is an unusual organism that can both make its own food and eat what it finds in the water. J. Vet. Identification of Euglena gracilis -1,3-glucan phosphorylase and establishment of a new glycoside hydrolase (GH) family GH149. Wax ester synthase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase (EgWSD) isozymes have been shown to fulfil a role similar to that of EgWS. Biotechnol. 2011; Sanghvi and Martin 2010 ). MySQL. Oil Chem. Energy Res. Br. To maximise the bioactive potential of paramylon, the granules could be hydrolysed to soluble shorter-chain -1,3-glucans, which may lead to an increased blood plasma availability and a stronger or different immune response compared to an insoluble preparation (Rice et al., 2005). Biochem. (2016). 64, 415419. DW titres per L of MT cultures have been shown to fall short of HT cultures in comparative experiments by around 30% (w/w), although it has been suggested that the PT and HT metabolisms could complement each other under MT conditions (Ogbonna et al., 2002; Hasan et al., 2017). The direct contribution to prey capture represents a novel function . doi: 10.1021/ja01299a505, Wiseman, E.M., Bar-El Dadon, S., and Reifen, R. (2017). doi: 10.1002/apj.1805, Yamada, K., Suzuki, H., Takeuchi, T., Kazama, Y., Mitra, S., Abe, T., et al. Chemical derivatives of paramylon (activated paramylon) have been shown to exhibit augmented or novel bioactivities. Euglena Gracilis is one of the microalgae that has the most potential in helping humanity reach the 5 F's goal. Biophys. Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in Euglena gracilis: biochemical and molecular evidence for the involvement of a 4-fatty acyl group desaturase. FEBS Lett. In the Western world, major health conditions like cardiovascular and neurological diseases have been linked directly to a lack of long-chain -3 PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in the dietary intake (Deckelbaum and Torrejon, 2012; Innis, 2014). 25, 855865. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036, Andreani, L., and Rocha, J.D. Oral delivery and gastrointestinal absorption of soluble glucans stimulate increased resistance to infectious challenge. Growth and chemical composition of Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures. J. Pharmacol. doi: 10.1111/and.13088, Al Abdallah, Q., Nixon, B.T., and Fortwendel, J.R. (2016). Bioeng. Biosci. For example, mice treated with 2,4,6-trinitrochlorobenzene, which would usually induce atopic dermatitis (AD)-like skin lesions, were fed with paramylon at 1% (w/w) of their diet. Biosci. The vicious cycle of vitamin a deficiency: a review. 426, 125134. Nutr. 35, 7684. 7, 715729. Large scale cultivation of genetically modified microalgae: a new era for environmental risk assessment. E. gracilis is of considerable environmental importance and biotechnological value: it can survive a variety of carbon resources, toxic chemicals, and adverse environmental conditions such as. Only central enzymes/substrates/intermediates/products are shown. J. Struct. Isolation and characterization of paramylon synthase from Euglena gracilis (Euglenophyceae). 71, 885890. In the present study, we isolated the cDNA encoding MMAA from Euglena gracilis Z, a photosynthetic flagellate. Yet, the influence of light was shown to be independent of the presence of chlorophyll, suggesting that mitochondria may be primarily responsible for the regulation of -tocopherol synthesis (Kusmic et al., 1998; Ogbonna et al., 1998; Fujita et al., 2008; Hasan et al., 2017). Agricult. The unique ascorbate synthesis pathway from E. gracilis (Figure 2B) has been elucidated using radiotracer experiments, as well as transcriptomic and proteomic studies (Ishikawa and Shigeoka, 2008; O'Neill et al., 2015b; Hasan et al., 2017). Contribution to journal Article peer-review Rounding of the cell body, as determined by the reconfigurations of the pellicle . Paramylon, which is exclusively found in euglenoids is already present in the market as a potent immunostimulatory agent. J. doi: 10.1186/s12864-016-2540-6, Yu, L., Wu, J.-R., Liu, J., Zhan, X., Zheng, Z., and Lin, C.-C. (2011). 12, 8994. 28, 817830. Alternatively, conventional mutagenesis could be used to generate 'natural' mutant strains with desired traits, a process which is generally not considered GM. 13, 10781082. Biophys. J. Appl. (2009). Biochem. Two examples are high-throughput optofluidic image cytometry, where lipid-overproducing mutants can be identified without the need for staining of the cells with potentially phenotype-altering dyes, and fluorescence imaging flow cytometry, which allows the normalisation of fluorescence values against the cell size to avoid false-negative results (i.e., mislabelling of small cells with relatively high fluorescence values) (Lei et al., 2016; Muoz et al., 2018). Hepatoprotective effects of paramylon, a -1,3-D-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis Z, on acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. Cell Factories 12, 117. (2018b). Euglena gracilis paramylon activates human lymphocytes by upregulating pro-inflammatory factors. doi: 10.1007/s10811-017-1235-y, Kiss, J.Z., Vasoconcelos, A.C., and Triemer, R.E. Figure 3. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.11.013, Niki, E., and Traber, M.G. In another report, the 4-desaturase from E. gracilis (see Figure 2D) was expressed together with the 15-desaturase from Caenorhabditis elegans in mammalian cells, resulting in a shift of the intracellular FA profile towards more valuable EPA and DHA (Qi et al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2014). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084871, Keywords: Euglena gracilis, biosynthesis, dietary protein, vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, wax esters, paramylon, large-scale cultivation, Citation: Gissibl A, Sun A, Care A, Nevalainen H and Sunna A (2019) Bioproducts From Euglena gracilis: Synthesis and Applications. doi: 10.1021/jf990993o, Qi, B., Fraser, T., Mugford, S., Dobson, G., Sayanova, O., Butler, J., et al. Euglena gracilis ascorbate peroxidase forms an intramolecular dimeric structure: its unique molecular characterization. doi: 10.3390/antiox6040099, Fujita, T., Aoyagi, H., Ogbonna, J.C., and Tanaka, H. (2008). This biomass yield would be comparable to or higher than those obtained with some microalgae grown under HT conditions (Table 1) (Bumbak et al., 2011). In addition, the enzyme ascorbate peroxidase reduces excess hydrogen peroxide to water by oxidation of ascorbate (Shigeoka et al., 1980; Ishikawa et al., 2010; Hasan et al., 2017). Gene knockdown via RNA interference (RNAi) has led to the identification of the role of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase in phototaxis and the finding that glucan synthase-like 2 is essential for paramylon synthesis (Ntefidou et al., 2003; Tanaka et al., 2017). Light dependency of resistance to ionizing radiation in Euglena gracilis. Euglena is a rare organism that combines both plant and animal cell characteristics to efficiently absorb nutrients. In this context, E. gracilis has been shown to produce protein containing all 20 proteinogenic amino acids (Isegawa et al., 1993; Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010; Hasan et al., 2017). doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00147. nitrogen, and phosphorus) under the oxygen-free environment led to a favorable condition for lipid accumulation. Adv. Production of wax esters via microbial oil synthesis from food industry waste and by-product streams. doi: 10.1007/s11745-010-3395-2, Tokuoglu, ., and nal, M.K. 48, 17701775. Nevertheless, ascorbate and other bioproducts like vitamin E remain an important component of commercially available food supplements based on E. gracilis cell mass (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2018). Comparative assessment of the Euglena gracilis var. Its most studied wild-type strains are Z and bacillaris, but their discrimination by standard molecular methods is difficult.Therefore, we decided to test the suitability of MALDI-TOF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry . (2014). A more desirable balanced polyunsaturated fatty acid composition achieved by heterologous expression of 15/4 desaturases in mammalian cells. 67, 10671069. Carotenoids: biochemistry, pharmacology and treatment. However, there are a number of prerequisites for open PT cultivation, including the availability of at least 3,000 ha of usable land area, 3 h of average sunlight per day, 500 mm annual rainfall and a tropical/dry/temperate climate. Eng. Interactions between photoautotrophic and heterotrophic metabolism in photoheterotrophic cultures of Euglena gracilis. Sci. Figure 1. Univ. Sci. Euglena gracilis is a good source of vitamins A, C, and E and amino acids, which are essential for the human diet. Importantly, animal and in vitro studies have shown an excellent digestibility of protein derived from E. gracilis biomass (Hosotani and Kitaoka, 1977). Eur. doi: 10.1021/bi00905a042, Russo, R., Barsanti, L., Evangelista, V., Frassanito, A.M., Longo, V., Pucci, L., et al. -1,3-glucan hydrolases from Euglena gracilis: II. doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(67)90227-6, Matos, .P. Food Sci. Inui, H., Ishikawa, T., and Tamoi, M. (2017). Microbiol. The contribution of -carotene to vitamin A supply of humans. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.12.040, Shibakami, M., Tsubouchi, G., Nakamura, M., and Hayashi, M. (2013b). Opin. Eng. doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2013.03.006, Choi, J.A., Oh, T.-H., Choi, J.-S., Chang, D.-J., and Joo, C.-K. (2013). Curr. Perspect. Nature 438, 90. doi: 10.1038/nature04056, Croft, M.T., Warren, M.J., and Smith, A.G. (2006). 97, 322329. Appl. Recently, Khatiwada et al. Shibakami, M., Shibata, K., Akashi, A., Onaka, N., Takezaki, J., Tsubouchi, G., et al. In recent years, a growing number of cytometry approaches have been developed for the screening of E. gracilis mutant strains with an increased lipid content. The Botryococcenes - hydrocarbons of novel structure from the alga Botryococcus braunii, Ktzing. These low titres could represent a good target for improvement by genetic engineering or non-recombinant metabolic engineering techniques based on the selection of improved phenotypes after the application of a selective pressure such as adaptive laboratory evolution (Portnoy et al., 2011; Dragosits and Mattanovich, 2013; Khatiwada et al., 2019). Ferment. (2017). Synthesis of vitamin B1. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1160362, Yadavalli, R., Rao, C.S., Rao, R.S., and Potumarthi, R. (2014). Chem. Biochem. 52, 203210. Rectangular and wedge-shaped segments consisting of these fibres are arranged to form granules, which can be synthesised by E. gracilis in different shapes like ellipses or rods (Figure 3B). Aquacult. The study showed that Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was superior to electroporation and biolistic bombardment, resulting in stable E. gracilis transformants. Biophys. doi: 10.1006/abbi.1999.1167, Wang, Y., Seppnen-Laakso, T., Rischer, H., and Wiebe, M.G. Curr. Algae need their vitamins. They respond to light with photophobic responses, photokinesis and phototaxis, all of which can result in accumulations of the organisms in suitable habitats. Characterization of paramylon morphological diversity in photosynthetic euglenoids (Euglenales, Euglenophyta). At this time, microalgae-derived biofuels are not economically feasible because they are not competitive with fossil fuels due to their higher production costs. Exp. A key enzyme in its -tocopherol synthesis pathway (Figure 2C) is -tocopherol methyltransferase (Shigeoka et al., 1986, 1992). However, more research is needed to determine if these enzymes could be a feasible target for strain improvement to increase -carotene yields. PT cultivation induces the synthesis of ascorbate in E. gracilis as a mechanism to cope with reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during photosynthesis (ROS scavenging). doi: 10.3390/foods6070053, Hosotani, K., and Kitaoka, S. (1977). Immunopathol. -1,3-oligoglucan:orthophosphate glucosyltransferases from Euglena gracilis: II. The biosynthetic pathway of L-ascorbic acid in Euglena gracilis Z. J. Nutr. Some species can form green or red "blooms" in ponds or lakes. doi: 10.1002/elsc.200900077, antek, B., Friehs, K., Lotz, M., and Flaschel, E. (2012). doi: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2012.12.002. PT cultivation on the other hand, although being a feasible alternative to HT cultivation, is restricted by low yields even after the technical optimisation of the cultivation process (Chae et al., 2006; Grimm et al., 2015; Hasan et al., 2017; Suzuki, 2017). doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2004.04.005, Henchion, M., Hayes, M., Mullen, A., Fenelon, M., and Tiwari, B. Ammonia- and light-induced degradation of paramylum in Euglena gracilis. J. Appl. 37, 178185. doi: 10.1016/S0016-2361(00)00142-3, Maxwell, J.R., Douglas, A.G., Eglinton, G., and McCormick, A. Euglena gracilis has considerable biotechnological potential and great adaptability, but exploitation remains hampered by the absence of a comprehensive gene catalogue.
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